INTRODUCTION
Communication:
"Any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes."
SUMMARY
Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way by both sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Communication requires that all parties understand a common language that is exchanged, There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.[1] Communication is the articulation of sending a message, through different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc.
Types of communication
There are 3 major parts in any communication which is body language, voice ,tonality and words. According to the research (Mehrabian and Ferris,'Inference of Attitude from Nonverbal Communication in Two Channels' in The Journal of Counselling Psychology Vol.31, 1967,pp.248-52), 55% of impact is determined by body language--postures, gestures, and eye contact, 38% by the tone of voice, and 7% by the content or the words used in the communication process. Although the exact % of influence may differ from variables such as the listener and the speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in some cases, can be universal.
Language
A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.
There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich is credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages
Dialogue
A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. The etymological origins of the word (in Greek διά(diá,through) + λόγος(logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix διά-(diá-,through) and the prefix δι- (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.
Non-human living organisms
Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication. Thus, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like bacteria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations.
Animals
Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics' (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition
Plants and fungi
Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzoneFungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects.
HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION
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| 3500 BC
| The Phoenicians develop an alphabet.
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| 1775 BC | Greeks use a phonetic alphabet written from left to right. |
| 1400 BC | Oldest record of writing in |
| 1270 BC | The first encyclopedia is written in |
| 900 BC | The very first postal service - for government use in |
| 776 BC | First recorded use of homing pigeons used to send message - the winner of the Olympic Games to the Athenians. |
| 530 BC | The Greeks start the very first library. |
| 500 BC
| Papyrus rolls and early parchments made of dried reeds - first portable and light writing surfaces. |
| 200 BC
| Human messengers on foot or horseback common in |
| 14 | Romans establish postal services. |
| 37 | Heliographs - first recorded use of mirrors to send messages by Roman Emperor Tiberius. |
| 100 | First bound books |
| 105 BC | Tsai Lun of |
| 305 | First wooden printing presses invented in |
| 1049 | First movable type invented - clay - invented in |
| 1450 | Newspapers appear in |
| 1455 | Johannes Gutenberg invents a printing press with metal movable type. |
| 1560 | Camera Obscura invented - primitive image making. |
| 1650 | First daily newspaper - |
| 1714 | Englishmen, Henry Mill receives the first patent for a typewriter. |
| 1793 | Claude Chappe invents the first long-distance semaphore (visual or optical) telegraph line. |
| 1814 | Joseph Nicéphore Niépce achieves the first photographic image. |
| 1821 | Charles Wheatstone reproduces sound in a primitive sound box - the first microphone. |
| 1831 | Joseph Henry invents the first electric telegraph. |
| 1835 | Samuel Morse invents Morse code. |
| 1843 | Samuel Morse invents the first long distance electric telegraph line.
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| 1861 |
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| 1867 | American, Sholes the first successful and modern typewriter. |
| 1876 | Thomas Edison patents the mimeograph - an office copying machine.
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| 1877 | Thomas Edison patents the phonograph - with a wax cylinder as recording medium.
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| 1887 | Emile Berliner invents the gramophone - a system of recording which could be used over and over again. |
| 1888 | George Eastman patents Kodak roll film camera. |
| 1889 | Almon Strowger patents the direct dial telephone or automatic telephone exchange. |
| 1894 | Guglielmo Marconi improves wireless telegraphy. |
| 1898 | First telephone answering machines. |
| 1899 | Valdemar Poulsen invents the first magnetic recordings - using magnetized steel tape as recording medium - the foundation for both mass data storage on disk and tape and the music recording industry.
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| 1902 | Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals from |
| 1904 | First regular comic books. |
| 1906 | Lee Deforest invents the electronic amplifying tube or triode - this allowed all electronic signals to be amplified improving all electronic communications i.e. telephones and radios. |
| 1910 | Thomas Edison demonstrated the first talking motion picture. |
| 1914 | First cross continental telephone call made. |
| 1916 | First radios with tuners - different stations. |
| 1923 | The television or iconoscope (cathode-ray tube) invented by Vladimir Kosma Zworykin - first television camera. |
| 1925 | John Logie Baird transmits the first experimental television signal. |
| 1926 | Warner Brothers Studios invented a way to record sound separately from the film on large disks and synchronized the sound and motion picture tracks upon playback - an improvement on Thomas Edison's work. |
| 1927 | NBC starts two radio networks.
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| 1930 | Radio popularity spreads with the "Golden Age" of radio.
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| 1934 | Joseph Begun invents the first tape recorder for broadcasting - first magnetic recording. |
| 1938 | Television broadcasts able to be taped and edited - rather than only live. |
| 1939 | Scheduled television broadcasts begin. |
| 1944 | Computers like Harvard's Mark I put into public service - government owned - the age of Information Science begins. |
| 1948 | Long playing record invented - vinyl and played at 33 rpm.
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| 1949 | Network television starts in U.S.
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| 1951 | Computers are first sold commercially. |
| 1958 | Chester Carlson invents the photocopier or Xerox machine.
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| 1963 | Zip codes invented in the |
| 1966 | Xerox invents the Telecopier - the first successful fax machine. |
| 1969 | ARPANET - the first Internet started. |
| 1971 | The computer floppy disc invented.
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| 1972 | HBO invents pay-TV service for cable. |
| 1976 | Apple I home computer invented.
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| 1979 | First cellular phone communication network started in |
| 1980 | Sony Walkman invented. |
| 1981 | IBM PC first sold.
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| 1983 | Time magazines names the computer as "Man of the Year."
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| 1984 | Apple Macintosh released.
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| 1985 | Cellular telephones in cars become wide-spread.
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| 1994 | American government releases control of internet and |
RECOMMENDATION:
We all knew that Communication is very important to every individuals. it help us to understand each other & communicate as easy as it could be. But the fact is there are some people doesn’t know how to communicate well, Me my self & I recommend to those people that they must learn how is the right way to communicate & understand it very well so that there would not be a misunderstanding between each other. to understand each other is one of the harmonious way to communicate.
INTRODUCTION
A society is a population of humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that may share a distinctive culture and institutions. More broadly, a society is an economic, social and industrial infrastructure in which a varied multitude of people or peoples are a part. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A society may be a particular people, such as the Saxons, a nation state, such as Bhutan, or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society.
The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purpose.
SUMMARY
ORIGIN & USAGE OF SOCIETY
The English word "society" emerged in the 15th century and is derived from the French société. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly association with others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner." The Latin word is probably related to the verb sequi, "to follow", and thus originally may have meant "follower".
In political science, the term is often used to mean the totality of human relationships, generally in contrast to the State, i.e., the apparatus of rule or government within a territory:
In the social sciences such as sociology, society has been used[citation needed]to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group. Society is sometimes contrasted with culture. For example, Clifford Geertz has suggested that society is the actual arrangement of social relations while culture is made up of beliefs and symbolic forms
Evolution of societies
A half-section of the 12th century Song Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by Gu Hongzhong; the painting, which is a masterpiece of the era's artwork, portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, hosts all in a single societal environment, serves as an in-depth look into 10th-century Chinese social structure.
According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in human society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobo), is the parental role assumed by the males, which were unaware of their "father" connection
Gerhard Lenski, a sociologist, differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial. and now (5) virtual. This is somewhat similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:
- Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.
- Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.
- Stratified structures led by chieftains.
- Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
In addition to this there are:
- Humanity, mankind, that upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs.
- Virtual-society is a society based on online identity, which is evolving in the information age.
Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more-complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal foodstocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.
Today, anthropologists and many social scientists vigorously oppose the notion of cultural evolution and rigid "stages" such as these. In fact, much anthropological data has suggested that complexity (civilization, population growth and density, specialization, etc.) does not always take the form of hierarchical social organization or stratification.
Characteristics of society
The following three components are common to all definitions of society:
- Social networks
- Criteria for membership, and
- Characteristic patterns of organization
Each of these will be explored further in the following sections.
Social networks
Social networks are maps of the relationships between people. Structural features such as proximity, frequency of contact and type of relationship (e.g., relative, friend, colleague) define various social networks
RECOMMENDATION
A society is where we leave for of course! A characteristic of every individuals takes place. The English word "society" emerged in the 15th century and is derived from the French société. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly association with others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner." The Latin word is probably related to the verb sequi, "to follow", and thus originally may have meant "follower".so that means,we should do are part as an individuals to have a a great society.
INTRODUCTION
Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another".Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture is manifested in human artifacts and activities such as music, literature, lifestyle, food, painting and sculpture, theater and film.[5] Although some scholars identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in high culture, low culture, folk culture, or popular culture),[6] anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For them, culture thus includes art, science, as well as moral systems.
Cultural studies developed in the late 20th century, in part through the re-introduction of Marxist thought into sociology, and in part through the articulation of sociology and other academic disciplines such as literary criticism. This movement aimed to focus on the analysis of subcultures in capitalist societies. Following the non-anthropological tradition, cultural studies generally focus on the study of consumption goods (such as fashion, art, and literature). Because the 18th- and 19th-century distinction between "high" and "low" culture seems inappropriate to apply to the mass-produced and mass-marketed consumption goods which cultural studies analyses, these scholars refer instead to "popular culture".
SUMMARY
CULTURE, came from the Latin word cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance.Generally refers to patterns of human activity & the symbolic structure that give such activities significance & importance.CULTURE has been called”the way of life for an entire society”As such,it includes codes of manners,dress,language,religion,ritual norms of behavior such as law & morality,& the system belief as well as the arts.
“CULTURE & ANTHROPOLOGY”
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY, most commonly use the form “CULTURE” to refer to the universal human capacity & activities to classify, codify & communicate their experience materially & symbolically.
EDWARD TYLOR,, was one of the first English-speaking scholar to use the term CULTURE in ANTHROPOLOGY. Described culture in the following way: "Culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
More recently, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) (2002) described culture as follows: "... culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs".
While these two definitions cover a range of meaning, they do not exhaust the many uses of the term "culture." In 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions
“BELIEF SYSTEM”
Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin religare, meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion defines religion in the following way:
... an institution with a recognized body of communicants who gather together regularly for worship, and accept a set of doctrines offering some means of relating the individual to what is taken to be the ultimate nature of reality.
Religion often codifies behavior, such as with the Ten Commandments of Christianity or the five precepts of Buddhism. Sometimes it is involved with government, as in a theocracy. It also influences arts.
Western culture spread from Europe most strongly to
Abrahamic religions
Judaism is one of the first, recorded monotheistic faiths and one of the oldest religious traditions still practiced today. The values and history of the Jewish people are a major part of the foundation of other Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Islam, as well as the Bahá'í Faith. However, while sharing a heritage from Abraham each has distinct arts (visual and performance arts and the like). Of course some of these are regional influences among the nations the religions are present in, but there are some norms or forms of cultural expression distinctly emphasized by the religions.
Christianity has been important to European and
Islam has had influence over much of the North African, Middle and
“Marriage”
Marriage occurs in most cultures, though specific customs vary widely. Marriage is difficult to define cross-culturally because cultures define family, love, parenthood, gender roles, etc., differently. Cross-culturally, one's motivation to get married and expectations of it, therefore, vary widely. In some cultures, marriages are conducted very much like business transactions, in others they are deeply sentimental.
RECOMMENDATION:
Culture is one way of classifying in which group we belong. it compose of arts, beliefs we’re we should follow. Me MY self & I recommend that we have still to follow & respect our own beliefs even though we are now in the new era or the so called hytech level. Cultureis still important to every individual because its describes who really we are.
INTRODUCTION
An ancient maxim tells us that the proper study of man is man. The problem of man is an eternal and at the same time the most urgent of all problems. It lies at the heart of the philosophical questions of man's place and destination in a world that is being discovered and transformed in the name of humanity, the highest of all values. The main goal of social development is the formation of human abilities and the creation of the most favourable conditions for human self-expression.
Physicists are perfectly right in stressing the difficulties of research into elementary particles. But they should not resent being told that such research is child's play in comparison with the scientific comprehension of games played by children! The rules of any game are only a conventionally marked path; children "run" along this path very capriciously, violating its borders at every turn, because they possess free will and their choice cannot be predicted. Nothing in the world is more complex or more perplexing than a human being.
Many sciences study people, but each of them does so from its own particular angle. Philosophy, which studies humanity in the round, relies on the achievements of other sciences and seeks the essential knowledge that unites humankind.
Idealism reduces the human essence to the spiritual principle. According to Hegel, the individual realises not subjective, but objective aims; he is a part of the unity not only of the human race but of the whole universe because the essence of both the universe and man is the spirit.
The essence of man comprises both the spiritual sphere, the sphere of the mind, and his bodily organisation, but it is not confined to this. Man becomes aware of himself as a part of the social whole. Not for nothing do we say that a person is alive as long as he is living for others. Human beings act in the forms determined by the whole preceding development of history. The forms of human activity are objectively embodied in all material culture, in the implements of labour, in language, concepts, in systems of social norms. A human being is a biosocial being and represents the highest level of development of all living organisms on earth, the subject of labour, of the social forms of life, communication and consciousness.
SUMMARY
THE HUMAN BEING,It is important to understand what we are as human beings. The present state of knowledge of the human being is one which has been informed by the materialistic reductionist thinking of modern technological science. It is commonplace for people generally to think of the human body as being merely an elaborate machine, with all the non-material aspects of the human being- thinking, feeling, attitudes, emotions, mores, imagination, etc., etc, as being merely the result of the physico-chemical activities which take place in the physical body. However, the human organism is not a machine and does not operate under the aegis of chemical and physical laws. People today have become accustomed to something different. They depart from nature as far as possible. They do something which shuts their own sight off from nature, for what they wish to examine they lay beneath a glass on a little stand - the eye does not look out into nature, but looks into the glass. Sight itself is cut off from nature. They call this the microscope. In certain connections it might as well be called a nulloscope, for it shuts one off from the great world of nature. People do not know, when something under a glass is magnified, that for spiritual knowledge it is exactly as though the same process were to take place in nature herself. For only think, when you take some minute particle from the human being for the purpose of observation under a microscope, what you then do with this minute fragment is the same as if were to stretch the man himself and tear him apart. You would be an even worse monster than Procrustes if you were to wrench man and tear him asunder in order to enlarge him as that minute particle is enlarged under the microscope. But do you believe that you would still have the person before you? This would naturally be out of the question. Just as little do you have the reality there under the microscope. The truth which has been magnified is no longer the truth; it is an illusory image. We must not depart from nature and imprison our own sight. For other purposes, this can of course be useful; but for a true knowledge of man it is immensely misleading.
The human being is a microcosm of the macrocosm. If we take this statement as our starting point, we can build up a picture of the human being by observing nature, and in nature we find there are three major kingdoms:
RECOMMENDATION
HUMAN BEING talks about the living organisms here in the earth.
